When there are so many contextual theologies does one need a Dalit Theology? Why can’t one club it under the Liberation Theology or theology of the “Poor”? What merit does Dalit Theology have to stand as a separate formulation? With these questions in mind let us delve deeper into this enquiry so as to set the framework for the concerned paper on Dalit Theology
Need For a Dalit Theology
The thrust of contextual theology was that it challenged the universal assumptions of Euro- American Theologies. The universal underpinnings of such theology marginalized the particular sufferings and passions of the people who were in the periphery of the theological discourses.[1] The contribution of Gustavo Guttirez is that he took his Latin American context of poverty very seriously that was beyond the ambit of Euro-American White- Male centred theologies. His effort to make poverty and marginalization a category for theological formulation was an extension of the political theology pioneered by Jurgen Moltmann. This theology synthesised Biblical hermeneutics with the Marxist methodology so as to address the poverty and oppression of Latin America. In the same way the contribution of James Cone needs to be taken into Cognizance where he evolved a methodology for Black Theology. The dilemma for Blacks was that their oppressors were the ones who Worshipped Jesus as Lord. Their Christian counterparts were oppressing the black. Synthesising Black Nationalism along with Marxism for a fresh Hermeneutics of the Bible, the Black Theology started evolving. So we see that the oppressed poor of the Latin America and the Blacks of United States of America became important starting points for theologization. We have to bear in mind that the overarching trend of Euro-American theologies was that they stressed on the transcendence of God. But liberation theology and Black theology emphasised on the Immanence of God. This was a significant shift. Considering the brief background of contextual theologies let us now concentrate on the need for a Dalit Theology.
As seen above the category of the poor and the socio-cultural context of Black oppression was inadequate to address the specific oppression suffered by Dalits over 3,000 years in history. As here as Saral K. Chatterji observes, “We need to focus on the socio- cultural as well as economic realities of the life situation of the oppressed sections in the theological reflections.[2] The Christians of the untouchable caste origin form the majority in the church of India which has grown and been strengthened by the movement of these oppressed people into this community. One has to realize that the influx of untouchables into churches was not a deliberate attempt by missionaries to convert them. Even if they became part of the church the caste equations were not altered. The Brahmins who were converted were not ready to let go the caste privileges and the egalitarian tenets of Christian faith had no positive implications on the untouchables. So in this sense the Christian dalits are “twice alienated”. They are regarded by the society’s non-dalits, whether rich or poor, in the same way as other dalits and tribals and they suffer from the same economic, social and educational disparities as other dalits. The dalits are discriminated against inside the structures of the church defeating the purpose of conversion where the people might have embraced the religion so as to be liberated from caste.[3] As in the case of Black Americans the oppressors were church going Christians. In the Dalit context it was the caste that was legitimized by religious sanctions of Hindu texts and this was implicitly carried over by Christians who believed the brotherhood in Christ. Such a premise calls for a Dalit Theology based on identity of the Dalit community.
Evolution of Dalit Theology
Dalit Theology as a new strand of theology emerged in the Asian theological scene in the early 80’s when A. P. Nirmal, then a faculty member at the United Theological College, Bangalore floated the idea of a “Shudra Theology”. This was followed by a series of attempts and initiatives to systematically articulate the faith in the context of the newly emerging Dalit aspiration for liberation. Along with A.P. Nirmal, James Massey, M.E. Prabhakar, M. Azariah, K. Wilson, V. Devasahayam and F.J. Balasundaram are some of the prominent figures in this theological movement. As theology predominantly became a vehicle to serve the elite interests, marginalizing the Dalit’s faith, Dalit theology manifested itself as a counter-theology movement. Re-formulation and re-visioning were the objectives rather than reconstruction and deconstruction. Both the European Missionary movement and the traditional Indian Christian Theology of the 20th Century were rejected as metaphysical speculations having nothing to do directly with history and existence of the marginalized majority within the Indian Church. Indian Christian Theology in the name of contextualization used Brahmanical concepts from the Vedas and the Upanishads for theologization. Dalit theology challenged this by saying that the theological task of India need not be the preserve of the “Brahmanic Tradition” within the Indian Church. Dalit theologians were of the opinion that the theological and cultural domination of Brahmanic traditions within the Indian Christianity, ignoring the rich cultural and religious experience of the Dalits had to be ignored, if not rejected completely.[4] One may think that this was a very narrow approach. But one has to bear in mind that the sacred texts of the Hindu Religion such as Vedas and mantras were not accessible to Dalits as a rule. They could perceive the same tradition continuing within Christianity in theology. Therefore the Dalit theological movement was intending to be a corrective to the institutionalization of inequality and inaccessibility within the theological field. The author wishes to sum up by this section by quoting A. P. Nirmal. “Whether it is the traditional Indian Christian Theology or the more recent third world theology, our theologians failed to see the struggle of Indian Dalits for liberation, a subject matter appropriate for doing theology in India. What is amazing is the fact that Indian Theologians ignore the reality of the Indian Church. While estimates vary, between 50 and 80 percent of all the Christians in India today are of Schedule-caste origin. This is the most important commonality cutting across the various diversities of the Indian Church that would have provided an authentic liberation motif for Indian Christian Theology. If our theologians failed to see this in the past, there is all the more reason for our waking up to this reality today and for applying ourselves seriously to the task of doing Dalit theology.[5]
Thus Dalit theology evolved as a liberation action in itself, in the sense that it’s coming into being created space for a development of a Dalit Christian Voice.
Basic Premises of Dalit Theology
Before understanding the categories of Dalit theology one needs to be acquainted with its basic premises which will help one to comprehend the logic and thought of the Dalit theology. It is as follows.
a) Theology is Contextual
Dalit theology affirms that all theologies have emerged and reflected particular contexts in spite of claims to the contrary. Theology starts from an analysis and reflection of our own contexts and seeks to interpret the word of God in relation to this context. Christian theology is rooted in the event of Incarnation and therefore, it needs to be rooted in the particular contexts of its emergence. Dalit Theology affirms that the contemporary context is one of oppression and theology should discern not only the mechanism but also the root causes of oppression. In this regard caste is an oppressive institution and therefore no theological method is adequate if it does not recognize caste as the contextual reality and a major structure of oppression.[6]
b) Theology is Reflection of Human Experience
Human life is the focus of theology. Theology is primarily concerned, not with either religious metaphysics or ritual, but with the human person. The individualistic, soul-oriented, lacking concern for totality of humanity, theology has to be rejected. Theology should reflect on contemporary forms of human experiences and life, all of which must be related to, relativized and humanized by the concept of God. Dalit theology recognizes the Dalit pathos as the starting point of theology.[7]
c) Theology Is to be Undertaken from the Perspective of the Oppressed
No theology is neutral and all theologies have bias, however much one tries to overcome his biases perspective. The earlier Indian Christian formulations were undertaken from the elitist perspective. Here the elitist experience and perceptions of reality were held as normative of the human experience and the human perception of reality. The masses were considered to have no significance as far as this reflective activity was concerned. Dalits have not been subjects of history. On the contrary the dalits were the victims of literary tradition. Even in theology Dalits were denied a name and face and were hidden under the general rubric of the “poor”. Theologizing should affirm the oppressed, particularly the dalits, as the subjects of theology and undertake the theological tasks from a Dalit perspective.[8]
d) Theology is Logos about God
The term theology comes from the two Greek terms theos and logos and means either word of God or word about God. The concept of God is the object of interest for Dalit theology. It is God who is the ultimate authority and point of reference for the Dalit theologian. The concepts related to scripture, creed, and humanity are secondary and derivative from the concept of God. God or the concept of God must be related to all aspects of Indian reality. The observation of Dalit theology is that the Indian Christian theology attempted to relate the religio-philosophical dimensions of the elites to the concept of God while the Marxian influenced liberation theologies have made the economic and political dimension of Indian reality interface with the concept of God. However the unique Indian social system, the one that provides the atmosphere for human life and relationship in India has not been brought into encounter with the concept of God. Dalit theology attempts to expose the conspiracy of silence by relating to and critiquing the caste system from the perspective of the Christian understanding of God.[9]
Contributions of Arvind P. Nirmal for the Development of Dalit Theology
Any breakthrough in theology is associated with its daring pioneers. When one talks about Liberation theology, the man associated with the epoch is Gustavo Guttirez while when one studies Black theology the name of James Cone as a pioneer stands unparalleled. Congruently when one discusses about Dalit theology, Dr. A. P. Nirmal becomes synonymous to it. As we have seen there are many contributors of Dalit Theology but the scope of this paper allows us only to look at the contribution of A.P. Nirmal and to analyse his theological categories. One needs to keep in mind that Dalit theology emerged on the basis of a need where the Indian Christian theology and the emerging liberation theology seemed inadequate to counter the problems of the religiously sanctioned practice of Caste. It is in such a context that one needs to place the works of A.P Nirmal. The primary task of theology according to Nirmal, is to aid people; and the people who need to be aided in the Indian context, as identified by him are the Dalits. Informed by the vision of the New Man in Christ, he tried to be relevant in the Indian context by articulating the Dalit theology. Let us now concentrate the premises and theological categories of Dalit theology according to A.P. Nirmal.
a) Pathos, the Basis of Dalit Theology
Nirmal defined Dalit Theology as a theology by, for and of an oppressed people: it is a people’s theology. In doing Dalit Theology he had taken the social and sociological dimensions seriously. Unlike the classical Christian theology as the most adequate medium for communicating Christian theological truths, Nirmal advocated the importance and the use of sociology. He said that Dalit theology is more concerned with peoples and their life- life with all its absurdity, illogicality, inconsistency and incoherence. Dalit theology serves the interests of Dalit people because they are an oppressed people. It does this by empowering them in their liberation struggle.[10] Dalit theology is based on views from the “bottom” and also from the “inside”. Dalit theological affirmations are grounded in people’s experiences. It is a theology from below and therefore it is more interested in the horizontal relations than in the vertical revelations. Nirmal contended that pathos was the basis of Dalit theology. Dalit thelogy affirms the basic unity between thelogy and practice, thought and action. All knowing is praxeological, but then it affirms that pathos is prior to praxis. “To suffer is to know” and Nirmal asserts that at the heart of dalit people’s experience is pathos or suffering. He contends that the dalits know God in and through their suffering. So for a Dalit theology pain or pathos is the beginning of knowledge. It is in and through this pathos that the sufferers know God. This is because the sufferer in and through his/her pathos knows that God participates in human pathos.[11]
b) Dalit Theology and Methodological Exclusivism
Nirmal in outlining a Dalit theology calls for a methodological exclusivism. This does not mean community exclusivism or that the Dalits must not be open to and receive help from all possible sources. What he means is that all dominant theologies have a tendency to accommodate, include, assimilate, and finally conquer other theologies. This is the danger that Dalit theology has to guard against. Dalit theology is a counter theology and, in order to play the role of a counter theology, Dalit theology must adopt a exclusivist stance and shut off the encroaching influences of dominant theology. This methodological exclusivism, according to Nirmal, was considered necessary for maintaining the distinctive identity of a Dalit theology.
c) Dalit Theology, a Theology of Identity
Nirmal was of the opinion that all people’s theologies are really theologies of identity. Dalit theology, liberation theology, Black theology, etc., are all theologies which try to seek to express the distinctive identities of these people. These are the people who are denied their distinctive identities by their oppressors. In the case of the Dalits, historically, it was the Brahmins who inflicted double injury on them. They subjugated the Dalits in order to subjugate their labour. They denied them worshiping rights by using the exploitative doctrine of Karma samsarato make them believe that their status as Dalits, was determined by their karma in their past lives.
While the oppressors’ theologies are imposed on the oppressed as normative everywhere, in India, it is the Brahmanical theological tradition which imposed itself upon the Dalit Christian majority, and therefore, the question of the distinctive identity of Dalit theology is inseparably linked with the identity of the Dalit people. But then one may ask, how are oppressor’s theologies forced upon the oppressed? Nirmal cites examples. He opined that the suppression of the holistic tribal vision was done in the name of national integration and the mainstream culture. The subjugation of the American Black theology by the theology developed by the Whites is another example to show that the oppressors’ theologies functions as normative and that they suppress and deny identity to the oppressed people.[12]
d) Dalit Theology and History
Nirmal spoke about Dalit identity because the question of identity is the question of the concerned people’s roots and their historical consciousness. History is important for Dalits. But the current prevailing historiography is not their side because it demands historical sources, particularly written sources of archaeological findings. The Dalit people have no written historical traditions. Their histories are oral histories based on historical traditions. Dalits were a conquered people so much so that their history and culture have been systematically destroyed by their conquerors. So Nirmal has been appealing for a historical scholarship that is interested in Dalit issues and to accept oral traditions as “alternative historical sources.” He suggested that family histories of Dalit be attempted. He also said that the rituals, rites and festivals of Dalits also need to be researched. He emphasises that Dalits and tribals are/were the original inhabitants of India and therefore their history and culture are not onlt per- Aryan but also pre- Dravidian. So his contribution for a new historiography based on oral traditions is a significant source for formulating a Dalit theology.[13]
e) Dalit Theology and Liberative Vision
It is not enough to identify the pathos and rewrite the history of the Dalits. Nirmal underlined that it is important to see a transforming liberative social vision. He cited Dr B.R. Ambedkar’s liberative social vision, which was based on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. Ambedkarian vision, one needs to note, places man and human dignity at the centre of his philosophical and sociological thinking. His writings that are integral to the Dalit Sahitya, are a protest against social inequality and social injustice. Thus the basic theme in Dalit Sahitya is total human liberation.[14] What one needs to realize is that Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar and his writings were central to the methodology of Dr. Nirmal.
f) Historical Consciousness, the Source of Dalit Theology
As we have seen above, the historical Dalit consciousness is the primary datum of a Christian Dalit theology according to Dr. Nirmal. But one may wonder what is Christian about Dalit theology? Nirmal opines that “It is the Dalitness which is Christian about Dalit theology.” In other words, the Christian for this theology is exclusively the ‘Dalit’. What this exclusivism implies is the affirmation that the Triune God- the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit- is on the side of the Dalits and not of on the non-Dalits who are the oppressors. He thinks that the Common Dalit experience of Christian Dalits along with the other Dalits will help shape a Christian Dalit theology. But then what is the common Dalit experience that fosters a historical consciousness? What is unique about Nirmal is that he uses his own experience as well as the experience of his Dalit mothers and fathers. His Dalit foreparents were outcastes. The Dalits were and are always on the outskirts of the Indian village. The historical Dalit consciousness in India depicts even greater and deeper pathos than is found in the Deuteronomic creed as they could not unclean footprints, could not spit out their spittle, and could not learn Sanskrit. They were not only “no people” but also “no humans”. They were the outcastes, the avarnas, people who were outside the caste system, and not human. Nirmal explained this very powerfully. He said “My Dalit mothers and sisters were forbidden to wear any blouses and the savarnas feasted their eyes on their bare bosoms. The savarnas denied my dalit ancestor any access to public wells and reservoirs. They denied him entry to their temples and places of worship. That my friends, was my ancestor- mainly in Maharashtra.”[15]
Dalit historical consciousness is a story of afflictions, bondage, the harsh treatment and the toil and tears of the Dalits. This is just not a past experience of Dalit foreparents, but it is also a present reality which is rooted in their psyche and in society. He says that Dalits should be aware of their historical Dalit experience. “We are not just Dalits, we are Christian Dalits. Our exodus from Hinduism to Christianity or rather to Jesus Christ is a valuable experience. It has enabled us to recognize our Dalitness and also the Dalitness of Jesus of Nazareth and the Dalitness of His father and our God.”[16]
g) The Dalit God
Let us now turn our attention to Nirmal’s understanding of God. He raises two important questions with regard to the understanding of God: what kind of God are we talking about? What kind of divinity does Dalit theology envision? He observes that the exodus of Christian Dalits in India meant the rejection of the non-Dalit deities. The God to whom the Dalits turned, the God whom Jesus Christ revealed is a Dalit God. He is a servant. A God who serves. Who can reject this Dalit God? This God is in midst of the liberation struggle of the Dalits of India. The God, whom Jesus Christ revealed and the prophets of the Old Testament spoke, is a Dalit God.[17]
h) The Dalit Jesus of the Gospels
Who is this Jesus that we talk about in Dalit theology? Nirmal has read the Gospels with Dalit eye and from a Dalit perspective. He recapitulates for us some of the features of Jesus’ Dalitness which is a great contribution towards Dalit Christology. He says that among the ancestors of Dalit Jesus, there are a few names, that should scandalize us (Matthew 1:1-17). They are Tamar, the daughter-in-law Judah, who outwitted her father-in-law by sleeping with him and conceiving by him a child(Gen. 38: 1-30); Rahab the harlot who helped the Israelite spies (Joshua 2: 1-12); king Solomon who was an illegitimate Child of David. These minute details of Jesus’ ancestry suggest his Dalit conditions. He was also a “carpenter’s son”, whose father’s profession was looked down upon. Further Jesus used the title “Son of Man”. While this title is used in three different ways, the second way in which the Son of Man is used is indicative of Jesus’ present sufferings and imminent death. These sayings speak of Son of Man as encountering rejection, mockery, contempt, suffering and final death. (Mark 8: 31; 9:12; 10:45). He underwent these dalit experience as the prototype of all Dalits. This Dalit Jesus of the gospels is totally identified with the Dalits of his day (Mark 2: 15-16). He is accused of eating and drinking with publicans, tax collectors and sinners of His day. He loved and cared for Samaritans, the Dalits of his day. The Dalit Jesus of the Nazareth Manifesto in the Gospel according to Luke, speaks about for him his liberation is meant. The two illustrations he uses indicate that the liberation he is talking about is meant for the Dalits and not for non-Dalits: the reference to Zarephath, is the widow in Sidon to whom Elijah was sent, though there were many widows in Israel; and it was only Namaan, the Syrian, the leper, whom Elisha cleansed. Thus the Dalits were set out against ‘Israel’. Convinced of this, Nirmal proclaims: The Gospel that Jesus brought was the Gospel for the Dalits and not for non-Dalits nor for Israel. The Nazareth manifesto really a Manifesto for the Dalits.[18]
Further, the Dalit Jesus’ attempt to cleanse the temple (Mark 11: 15-19) is a very important highlight for Dalit theology. Here Nirmal says that Jesus the messianic king restores to the Gentiles their religious rights. This he sees in the context of Dalits who had to struggle for temple entry rights. The Dalit Indians know what it means to be denied the right to pray and worship. In His act of restoration of the Gentiles’ right to worship, we see a prefiguration of the vindication of the Indian Dalit struggle for their prayer and worship rights. Above all these, it is the cross of Dalit Jesus that attracts Nirmal very much. Jesus on the Cross, was the broken, the crushed, the trampled, the torn- Jesus here was the Dalit in the fullest possible meaning of that term. Jesus cry of dereliction on the cross shows how the son of God feels God forsaken. That feeling of being God forsaken is the heart of Dalit experience and Dalit consciousness in India. It is the Dalitness of the divinity and humanity that the cross of Jesus symbolizes.
i) The Dalit Pneumatology
Nirmal has not worked this out in detail. This is in a way is his weakness. However he makes use of metaphors and images to bring out the beneficial activity of the Holy Spirit. He refers to the story of the valley of the dry bones in Ezekiel 37. The important question which this passage raises is: Can these bones live? The bones refer to Israel, but it is under Dalit consciousness- dead, dry and lifeless. The Holy Spirit revives them, gives them life, unifies them and makes them an army. Nirmal says “For us Dalits then, the Spirit is the life giver, unifier and the empowerer for the liberation struggle of Indian Dalits. But in our Dalit experiences, He is our comforter. He groans along with us in our sufferings.”[19] We need to be aware that Nirmal highlighted the empowering role Holy Spirit and the other aspects were not paid attention to. But within the scope of Dalit theology this focus is justifiable.
Conclusion
One needs to take into cognizance that Dalit theology is part of the post colonial struggle of different communities for their distinct identity and space. In a largely homogenizing trend influenced by two processes namely globalization and Hinduiasation, Dalits and Dalit Christians are still struggling for a Dalit identity of their own. Intra-Dalit conflicts and Dalit sub groups still continue despite the striving for a common Dalit identity and solidarity. Therefore, the challenge of Dalit theology is to strike an ideal balance between plurality and solidarity without succumbing to the pressures of homogenization. Hindutva revival/reform movements are trying to absorb Dalits into a monolithic Hindu fundamentalist culture. They are trying to spread the propaganda that Dalits have been truly part of ‘Hindu’ religio-cultural structures. This is a distortion of history, where Dalits are caught up in a dilemma whether to declare their solidarity with the Hindus or with Dalits. This historic dilemma seems to have had its impact upon Dalit Christians and the Dalit theological movement. This is the reason why the Dalit theology movement seems to be at a standstill. In this sense the future lies with the work of Sathyanathan Clarke who penned the Dalits and Christianity: Subaltern Religion and Liberation Theology in India. It opens up new avenues for Dalit theology movement.[20]
George Oommen opines that the almost total dependence on Biblical thought for theological construction needs reconsideration in the light of historical experience of Dalits. Pre-existing/Christian egalitarian thoughts and struggle for equality and justice were evident in Dalit history and memory. But the early Dalits had their own ways of protest and resistance. This is ignored by Dalit theologians. Dalit theologians also need to widen the definition of texts, given the oral emphasis in Dalit Tradition. By probing into Dalit folklore and songs they are likely to unearth extra textual sources for doing Dalit theology. This could also help create new hermeneutical principles unique to the Dalit theological movements.
We also saw that Pathos, suffering and pain are given utmost importance in Dalit theology. This could be a warped emphasis. The rich Dalit traditions of celebrating life in the context of communitarian values seem to have been completely ignored by Dalit theologians.[21] Here we have to understand that a balance of the Biblical visions along with the Dalit literature that reflects the Dalit ethos needs to be integrated into the Dalit theological spectrum. Summing up one need to realize that Dalit theology has given a formative dimension to theology that is incarnate completely into the context and ethos of a community. Socio-cultural emancipation has been made possible through the movement of Dalit Theology. Dalit theologians like Rev Y.T. Vinayraj are opening new frontiers by formulating Dalit theology in the epistemological framework of Postmodernity. The future is promising for Dalit Theology.
Bibliography
[1] Stanley Grenz, Contemporary Theologians
[2] Saral K. Chatterji, “Why Dalit Theology”, in A Reader in Dalit Theology, edited by Arvind P. Nirmal ( Chennai: Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, 1994), 26
[3] Ibid., 27-28.
[4] Sathianathan Clarke, Dalits and Christianity: Subaltern Religion and Liberation Theology in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 40.
[5] Arvind P. Nirmal, “Towards a Christian Dalit Theology” in Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology: Emerging Trends, edited by R. S. Sugirtharajah ( Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994), 30.
[6] V. Devasahayam, “Doing Dalit Theology: Basic Assumptions” CTC Bulletin, Vol XV, No.1 (January- June 1998): 31-32.
[7] Ibid., 33.
[8] Ibid., 34.
[9] Ibid., 35.
[10] Arvind P. Nirmal, “Towards a Christian Dalit Theology”, in A Reader in Dalit Theology, edited by Arvind P. Nirmal (Chennai: Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, 1994), 57.
[11] Franklin J. Balasundaram, “The Contribution of A.P. Nirmal to Theology and especially to Dalit Theology” Religion and Society, vol 45, no. 3 (September 1998): 88-90.
[12] Ibid., 91-92.
[13] Ibid., 92.
[14] Ibid., 92-93.
[15] Nirmal, A Reader…. Op. cit., 141.
[16] Ibid., 61-62.
[17] Ibid., 63.
[18] Ibid., 67.
[19] Ibid., 69.
[20] George Oommen, “The Emerging Dalit Theology: A Historical Appraisal” ICHR, Vol XXXIV, No. 1 (June 2000): 34-35.
[21] Ibid., 35-36.
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